Social Changes That Encourage Adult Orthodontics

Social Changes That Encourage Adult Orthodontics

**Desire for Improved Aesthetics**: Many adults seek orthodontic treatment to enhance the appearance of their smile, addressing concerns such as crooked teeth, gaps, or overbites that may have persisted from childhood or developed due to various life factors.

The journey of orthodontic treatment from a predominantly pediatric domain to a widely accepted practice among adults reflects a profound shift in societal perceptions, underscoring a broader acceptance of personal aesthetics and dental health as vital components of overall well-being. This transformation did not occur overnight; rather, it's the result of several converging social changes that have reshaped how we view orthodontics, making it a viable and desirable option for adults much like it has been for children for decades.


Firstly, the rise of social media has played an instrumental role in this paradigm shift. Platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and TikTok have become arenas where individuals share their personal transformations, including orthodontic journeys. Celebrities and influencers openly discussing their experiences with braces or clear aligners have normalized these treatments in the public eye. This visibility breaks down stereotypes that orthodontics is solely for teenagers, showcasing it as a tool for self-improvement accessible at any age. The curated images and stories circulating online highlight not just the aesthetic outcomes but also the boost in confidence that accompanies a straighter smile, resonating deeply with audiences across demographically diverse spectrums.


Secondly, there's been an increasing focus on adult health and wellness, extending beyond physical fitness to encompass mental health and personal appearance. A child's bite can be improved with timely orthodontic intervention Early orthodontic intervention health. Societal messages are increasingly emphasizing that taking care of one's teeth and smile is not merely about aesthetics but is integral to overall health. Adults are recognizing that issues like malocclusion (misaligned teeth) or jaw discrepancies can lead to more than just cosmetic concerns; they can impact oral health, chewing efficiency, and even self-esteem. This holistic view encourages adults to seek orthodontic interventions as part of their healthcare routine, mirroring the preventative and therapeutic approaches taken since childhood.


Moreover, advancements in orthodontic technology have made treatments more discreet, comfortable, and efficient than ever before. Clear aligners like Invisalign have revolutionized the field by offering nearly invisible options for straightening teeth without the bulky metal brackets associated with traditional braces. This innovation caters specifically to adult sensibilities-professionalism, convenience, and discretion-making orthodontic treatment less daunting and more appealing for those concerned about image or lifestyle constraints during treatment.


Additionally, workplace culture shifts play a significant role too. As workplaces evolve towards valuing individuality and personal expression more than uniform conformity, the pressure to conform to traditional beauty standards has lessened slightly. Adults feel empowered to pursue treatments like orthodontics without fearing professional repercussions or judgment from peers or superiors who now recognize these choices as personal decisions reflecting individual growth and care for one's well-being.


Lastly, economic factors cannot be overlooked; many adults today enjoy greater financial stability compared to previous generations at similar life stages. The investment in orthodontic treatment is viewed within this context-not just as an elective procedure but as an investment in quality of life that yields tangible benefits both personally and professionally through enhanced confidence and first impressions.


In essence, society's evolving perception around adult orthodontics encapsulates broader shifts toward valuing individual expression alongside health consciousness-a celebration of adulthood where enhancing one's smile is embraced as part of ongoing personal development rather than something reserved for youthful years alone. This trend reflects a world moving towards inclusivity in beauty standards while recognizing dental health as a cornerstone of wellness at every stage of life.

**Boosting Self-Confidence**: Orthodontic treatment can significantly improve an adult's self-esteem and confidence by correcting dental imperfections, leading to a more positive self-image and better social interactions. —

In recent years, the landscape of orthodontic treatment has undergone a remarkable transformation, particularly with the advent of discreet and efficient options that have redefined the accessibility and appeal of orthodontics for adults. This evolution is deeply intertwined with broader social changes that encourage individuals to prioritize their oral health and aesthetic desires without the stigma previously associated with traditional metal braces. The rise of clear aligners and invisible braces stands as a testament to how technological advancements are reshaping personal choices in healthcare, making orthodontic treatments more appealing, especially for adults who might have hesitated in their youth due to aesthetic concerns.


The introduction of clear aligners, notably brands like Invisalign, marked a pivotal shift in how orthodontic care is perceived. These invisible trays, custom-made from advanced plastic materials, fit snugly over the teeth, gradually shifting them into desired positions without the metallic glow and bulky wires that characterized traditional braces. For adults, this means undergoing orthodontic treatment without the worry of unsightly appliances impacting professional or social interactions. It's an embodiment of how technology can cater to contemporary sensibilities-a blend of effectiveness with discretion that resonates deeply in an age where personal image and immediacy are paramount.


Moreover, these advancements reflect broader social changes emphasizing individuality and self-expression. Adults today are more likely than ever to seek treatments that align with their lifestyle and personal aesthetics. The modern workplace often values authenticity and personal style; thus, opting for clear aligners can be seen as a continuation of one's commitment to maintaining a polished appearance even during treatment. This shift also ties into a growing awareness about oral health's impact on overall well-being, encouraging adults to take proactive steps towards better dental hygiene without compromising their confidence or professional image.


Another significant factor driving this trend is the role of social media in shaping perceptions around beauty standards and personal grooming. Platforms overflow with images showcasing smiles-perfectly aligned teeth becoming a symbol of success and attractiveness. This cultural emphasis on smile aesthetics has made treatments like clear aligners not just a medical necessity but a desirable lifestyle choice for many adults seeking to enhance their appearance subtly yet effectively.


Furthermore, advancements in orthodontic technology extend beyond just aesthetics; they also focus on efficiency and comfort. Modern materials and techniques have reduced treatment times while enhancing patient comfort-a critical consideration for professionals balancing busy schedules with treatment commitments. This efficiency ensures that adult patients can achieve their orthodontic goals with minimal disruption to their daily lives, further embedding orthodontics into the fabric of modern adult healthcare routines.


In essence, the journey toward straighter teeth is no longer confined by childhood constraints or societal stigma; it's evolving into a seamless integration of technology, convenience, and personal preference tailored specifically for adult lifestyles. As we continue witnessing innovations in orthodontic technology-like smart brackets that monitor progress or customizable treatment plans-the appeal of discreet yet effective solutions will only grow stronger. The narrative around orthodontics is transforming: it's no longer about hiding imperfections but embracing transformative care that respects individuality while enhancing quality of life-a perfect reflection of our changing social values where personal health meets contemporary lifestyle demands head-on.

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**Enhancing Oral Health**: Proper alignment of teeth through orthodontic treatment can improve oral hygiene by making it easier to clean teeth effectively, thereby reducing the risk of cavities and gum disease that may have been challenging to manage in misaligned dentitions.

In recent years, there's been a remarkable shift in how society views oral health, particularly as it relates to the embracing of orthodontic treatments among adults. This evolution reflects a broader understanding that the journey towards a healthy smile doesn't end with childhood; rather, it's a lifelong commitment. The emphasis on "Lifelong Oral Health" is not merely a buzzword but a pivotal paradigm shift that mirrors the proactive strategies seen in pediatric dentistry and orthodontics, encouraging adults to consider their dental health with the same diligence and enthusiasm as they do other aspects of their well-being.


The transformation in societal attitudes towards adult orthodontics is driven by several social changes, each playing a part in this significant cultural shift. Firstly, there's the increasing awareness of how our appearance impacts self-esteem and confidence. As society places more value on personal image and youthful aesthetics, adults are seeking ways to enhance their smiles at any age. The visibility of celebrities and public figures embracing orthodontic treatments without hesitation has normalized the idea that it's never too late to correct dental imperfections, whether for functional reasons or purely aesthetic ones.


Moreover, advancements in dental technology have made orthodontic treatments more comfortable, efficient, and discreet than ever before. Clear aligners like Invisalign have revolutionized the field, offering adults an almost invisible way to straighten teeth without the metal braces often associated with younger patients. This technological leap has significantly reduced barriers to entry for adults considering orthodontic care, making it less intimidating and more achievable within busy lifestyles.


Another pivotal factor is the growing recognition of oral health's link to overall health. Research continually unveils new connections between oral conditions and systemic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and even certain types of cancer. This knowledge underscores the importance of maintaining good oral hygiene and addressing issues like misaligned teeth or bite problems that can contribute to oral health complications over time. As adults increasingly understand these links, they're motivated to invest in lifelong oral health practices that include timely orthodontic interventions when necessary.


Furthermore, social media plays a surprising yet influential role in this trend. Platforms overflow with stories of successful adult orthodontic journeys-before-and-after transformations shared openly invite admiration and inspire others to pursue similar paths. These narratives foster community support and normalize discussions around personal dental care choices beyond traditional age norms.


Lastly, economic factors cannot be overlooked; many insurance plans now offer better coverage for orthodontic treatments for adults compared to earlier decades, making these services more financially accessible than ever before. Combined with flexible payment options provided by many dental practices, cost is less of an obstacle for pursuing improved oral health through orthodontics in adulthood.


In sum, we're witnessing an exciting change where maintaining lifelong oral health is becoming synonymous with taking charge of one's overall wellness-a mindset deeply rooted in preventive care principles akin to those championed by pediatric dentistry and orthodontics since their inception. As societal norms continue evolving towards greater acceptance and encouragement of adult orthodontics, we can expect this trend to flourish further, empowering individuals across all ages to embrace their best smiles confidently throughout every stage of life.

**Addressing Chronic Dental Issues**: Adults may seek orthodontics to resolve long-standing dental problems such as bite issues (overbites, underbites, crossbites) that can lead to jaw pain, headaches, and digestive difficulties if left untreated.

In the bustling tapestry of modern life, where social media reigns as a powerful influencer and the workplace is increasingly a stage for personal branding, the demand for an aesthetically pleasing smile has surged among adults, catalyzing a notable trend towards seeking orthodontic treatment. This shift is deeply rooted in contemporary societal pressures that intertwine professional expectations, social media perceptions, and evolving beauty standards, painting a complex picture of how our smiles are perceived and valued today.


To understand this phenomenon fully, one must gaze into the lens of social media, an omnipresent force shaping our daily interactions and self-perception. Platforms like Instagram and Facebook have turned smiles into currency in the realm of digital interaction. A radiant, straight smile often equates to youthfulness, happiness, and confidence-qualities highly sought after in both personal and professional spheres. The curated feeds we scroll through daily showcase an idealized version of life where every moment is captured in perfect light and every smile is flawless. This constant exposure fosters an environment where individuals feel compelled to align their appearance with these idyllic standards to avoid feeling left out or less desirable.


Parallelly, the modern workplace has evolved into an arena where first impressions are not just about what you wear but how you present yourself entirely. In many industries, particularly those focused on customer interaction or image-driven fields like entertainment and marketing, a polished appearance can be pivotal to professional success. An imperfect smile-one marred by crooked teeth or gaps-can inadvertently detract from the professional image one aims to project. Consequently, adults find themselves navigating a subtle yet pressing need to enhance their smiles through orthodontic treatments like Invisalign or braces, mirroring practices traditionally aimed at children's dental development but now embraced by adults seeking to refine their looks for career advancement or personal fulfillment.


This trend isn't merely about vanity; it's intertwined with deeper psychological needs for acceptance and self-assurance in an increasingly scrutinizing society. Social validation through likes and comments acts as a modern-day peer approval system. When your smile garners positive attention online-a dozen hearts on a post showing off your pearly whites-it reinforces the idea that this aesthetic improvement is worthwhile and desirable. The pressure to conform to these beauty ideals extends beyond mere aesthetics; it's about fitting into societal norms that laud physical perfection as synonymous with success and happiness.


Moreover, advancements in orthodontic technology have made treatments more discreet and convenient than ever before-clear aligners that fit almost invisibly over teeth mean that achieving straighter teeth no longer necessitates the metallic braces of yesteryears. This technological evolution has lowered barriers for adults who might have once hesitated due to concerns over visibility or discomfort during treatment. The ease of access coupled with societal pressures creates a potent combination driving more adults toward orthodontic solutions than ever before.


As we navigate this landscape shaped by social change and digital influence, it becomes clear that our smiles are no longer just personal expressions but also social currencies in both virtual spaces and real-world interactions. The quest for orthodontic perfection reflects broader societal shifts: valuing appearance as part of success narratives propagated by social media echo chambers and workplaces emphasizing visual impact alongside verbal communication skills. Thus emerges a narrative where adult orthodontics isn't merely about fixing dental issues; it's woven into the fabric

**Correcting Speech Impediments**: Misaligned teeth or jaw structures can contribute to speech difficulties; orthodontic treatment can correct these issues, improving articulation and overall communication skills.

The landscape of orthodontic care has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years, particularly when it comes to making treatments more accessible and affordable for adults. This shift mirrors the structured, supportive programs that have long been the cornerstone of children's orthodontic treatments, yet it represents a significant social change that reflects broader trends in healthcare accessibility and consumer finance. Let's unpack how advancements in insurance coverage, financing options, and the emergence of direct-to-consumer orthodontic services are reshaping this field.


Firstly, insurance coverage for adult orthodontic treatments has historically lagged behind that for children. Traditionally, many insurance policies viewed orthodontics as cosmetic rather than essential, limiting coverage primarily to minors whose teeth alignment issues could impact speech and feeding development. However, a growing body of evidence underscores the importance of oral health across all age groups, leading to gradual changes in insurance policies. Nowadays, an increasing number of adult dental plans include provisions for orthodontic care or at least offer partial coverage for certain procedures deemed medically necessary. This shift acknowledges that straighter teeth aren't just about aesthetics; they can significantly contribute to better oral health by reducing risks associated with misaligned teeth like gum disease and tooth decay.


Parallel to this evolution in insurance coverage is the revolutionary impact of financing options tailored specifically for adult orthodontics. Gone are the days when financing meant complex loans with steep interest rates or unreasonable pay-per-visit models that could stretch treatment over decades. Today's market offers specialized payment plans designed with affordability in mind-monthly installments that align with consumers' budgets, sometimes even incorporating interest-free periods or promotional offers that significantly lower upfront costs. These options make it easier for adults to commit to treatment without feeling financially overwhelmed-a crucial factor given the often longer duration of adult orthodontic therapies compared to those undertaken during adolescence.


Moreover, the advent of direct-to-consumer (DTC) orthodontic services represents a seismic shift akin to how online pharmacies transformed access to medications. Companies like SmileDirectClub and Candid have disrupted traditional models by providing clear aligners directly to consumers without requiring an initial consultation with a dentist or orthodontist. While this model has its critics concerning oversight and potential complications, it undeniably broadens access by removing geographical barriers and reducing wait times typically associated with traditional practices. For many adults juggling careers and family commitments, this convenience cannot be overstated-it democratizes access much like structured programs do for children who might otherwise miss out due to logistical challenges or financial constraints within their communities.


Drawing parallels between these advancements and children's structured programs reveals a larger narrative: society's evolving understanding of orthodontics as an integral part of overall health care rather than merely aesthetic enhancement. Just as childhood programs provide regular check-ups and early interventions supported by educational resources for parents, today's adult-centric initiatives emphasize informed decision-making through accessible information about treatment options and outcomes. This includes leveraging technology-from teleorthodontics consultations to detailed online resources-that empowers adults to take charge of their dental health just as parents navigate pediatric care systems today.


In conclusion, the strides made toward improved accessibility and affordability in adult orthodontics reflect profound social changes driven by shifts in healthcare policy, financial innovation, and technological advancement. As these developments continue unfolding alongside structured support systems seen in children's treatments-albeit adapted for adult needs-the future

**Preventive Measures Against Tooth Wear**: Properly aligned teeth are less prone to excessive wear and tear; adults may pursue orthodontic treatment to prevent premature tooth degradation and associated costs of restorative dentistry.

The journey toward a brighter smile isn't solely about aesthetic improvements; it's deeply entwined with psychological benefits that resonate profoundly, especially in adulthood. Over the past few decades, research has increasingly illuminated how orthodontic treatments can significantly bolster self-esteem and contribute positively to mental health among adults, akin to the well-documented confidence boost seen in children who undergo early orthodontic interventions. This shift in understanding reflects broader social changes that are encouraging more adults to seek orthodontic care, reshaping perceptions of what it means to invest in one's oral health and personal well-being.


Orthodontic treatment for adults is no longer viewed merely as a corrective measure for misaligned teeth but as a pathway to improved psychological wellness. The psychological benefits recognized in recent studies underscore this transformative impact. Adults undergoing orthodontic treatment often report heightened self-esteem, which can ripple out into various aspects of their lives, from personal relationships to professional interactions. This newfound confidence is not just about feeling better about one's smile; it's about embracing a holistic sense of self-worth that encourages individuals to engage more fully with the world around them.


The social landscape has played a crucial role in this shift towards embracing adult orthodontics. With the rise of social media and an increasingly image-conscious society, there's been a notable cultural shift where visibility and appearance are given more weight than ever before. However, this doesn't merely pressure individuals into conformity; rather, it opens up conversations around self-improvement and personal investment in health that extend beyond mere aesthetics. The normalization of seeing adults wearing braces or clear aligners publicly has demystified the process and made it more relatable and acceptable across diverse age groups.


Moreover, workplaces are evolving, placing greater emphasis on individual well-being alongside professional competence. As organizations recognize the link between mental health and productivity, supportive environments are being cultivated where seeking orthodontic care is seen not as a luxury but as an investment in overall employee wellness-a step towards fostering a healthier workforce mentally and emotionally equipped to tackle challenges effectively.


Furthermore, advancements in orthodontic technology have made treatment options less invasive and more discreet than ever before-clear aligners like Invisalign have revolutionized how treatments are perceived and pursued by adults concerned about maintaining their professional appearance during treatment. These innovations cater specifically to the needs of busy adults, allowing them to pursue dental perfection without significant interruptions or disruptions to their daily routines or professional commitments.


In essence, the recognition of psychological benefits from orthodontic treatments marks a pivotal social change-one that validates personal choices aimed at enhancing both physical appearance and mental health as integral components of adult development and well-being. It reflects a broader societal move towards valuing holistic health approaches where investing in oneself through procedures like orthodontics is celebrated as an act of self-care rather than vanity alone. As we continue navigating these changing tides, it becomes increasingly clear: embracing orthodontic care isn't just about achieving a perfect smile; it's about embarking on a journey toward enhanced confidence and improved quality of life at any age.

**Facilitating Better Chewing Efficiency**: Orthodontic treatment can improve bite function and alignment, allowing for more efficient chewing which is crucial for digestion and overall nutritional health in adulthood.

In recent years, a fascinating cultural shift has taken root, transforming how society perceives personal enhancement, particularly in the realm of orthodontics for adults. This evolution doesn't merely reflect a trend; it speaks to deeper changes in our collective values, aspirations, and understanding of self-improvement. Gone are the days when braces were predominantly associated with teenagers navigating the awkward terrain of adolescence. Today, adult orthodontics is increasingly viewed not just as a corrective measure but as an integral component of personal development-a modern-day milestone akin to those childhood vaccinations and growth spurts that once defined youthful progress.


This shift can be attributed to several converging cultural trends. Firstly, there's an undeniable emphasis on self-care and personal branding in our social media-driven world. Platforms like Instagram and LinkedIn have turned personal appearances into digital curations, where every smile shared or professional profile picture posted becomes part of one's public persona. In this context, orthodontic care isn't just about dental health; it's about projecting confidence and achieving a look that aligns with one's self-image and professional aspirations. Adults are increasingly seeing orthodontics as a tool for enhancing their personal brand-something that can subtly yet significantly impact career opportunities and social interactions.


Secondly, there's a growing recognition of the holistic nature of well-being. The wellness movement has broadened its scope beyond mere physical health to encompass mental and aesthetic well-being too. People are realizing that oral health is intrinsically linked to overall health and self-esteem. Straightening teeth isn't just about fixing a dental issue; it's part of cultivating a complete sense of well-being-a fuller smile can lead to greater confidence, which ripples into other areas of life from relationships to professional engagements.


Moreover, advancements in orthodontic technology have made the process more discreet, convenient, and appealing to adults who might have previously felt orthodontics was only for young people or couldn't fit into their lifestyle. Clear aligners like Invisalign offer nearly invisible solutions that don't disrupt work or social lives-they're aligned with the fast-paced demands of contemporary adulthood where maintaining a seamless transition between personal and professional spheres is crucial.


Lastly, societal attitudes towards aging have evolved significantly. There's now an embracement of aging gracefully while still striving for enhancement at any age. This mindset supports the idea that pursuing orthodontic care-or any form of enhancement-is not solely about returning to youth but about embracing ongoing self-improvement throughout life's stages. It reflects a culture that values continuous growth and adaptation rather than static perfection tied to age brackets.


In essence, the rise in adult orthodontics signifies something profound: an acceptance that personal enhancement is a lifelong journey intertwined with broader societal shifts toward valuing individual expression, holistic well-being, convenience, and continuous self-improvement regardless of age. As we witness this trend continue to flourish, it invites us to reconsider what it means to grow older-to see it not as a decline but as another chapter ripe with opportunities for refinement and enhancement in every facet of life.

The transformation in societal perceptions surrounding orthodontic treatments, particularly through the lens of celebrity endorsements and evolving media representation, marks a significant shift in how adulthood and personal beauty are perceived. This social change is particularly fascinating as it mirrors earlier narratives centered around children's orthodontics but extends them into the adult realm, fundamentally altering the landscape of dental aesthetics and self-image.


For decades, orthodontics was predominantly associated with childhood-a rite of passage often celebrated within families and communities as kids donned their braces, eagerly anticipating the arrival of their "cool" smiles post-treatment. The stories shared among peers about straightening teeth weren't just about dental health; they were steeped in hopes for improved confidence and social acceptance. Parents proudly displayed before-and-after photos of their children's transformations at family gatherings, reinforcing the idea that orthodontic treatment was not merely beneficial but almost a milestone on the path to growing up.


However, the narrative has evolved dramatically with celebrities stepping into the spotlight to openly embrace adult orthodontic treatments. When high-profile figures-think actors, musicians, and influencers-publicly share their journeys with Invisalign or traditional braces, they do more than just promote a product; they normalize an experience that was once thought to be exclusively juvenile. This visibility sends a powerful message: that seeking straighter teeth is not a childish desire but a mature decision toward self-care and personal enhancement at any age.


This shift is pivotal for several reasons. Firstly, it dismantles ageist stereotypes that have long suggested certain life improvements are only for youth. By showcasing themselves undergoing orthodontic treatments, celebrities reinforce that personal growth and aesthetic choices are continuous processes throughout life. This normalization encourages adults who might have delayed treatment due to societal pressures or feelings of self-consciousness to reconsider their options without shame or hesitation.


Moreover, media representation plays a crucial role in this cultural shift. Traditional media outlets increasingly feature stories highlighting successful outcomes in adult orthodontics, offering relatable content that resonates with a broad audience. Social media platforms amplify these messages further, creating vibrant communities where individuals share their experiences-before and after-thus fostering support networks that validate personal decisions regarding oral health and appearance.


This evolution also speaks to broader changes in societal attitudes towards beauty standards and individual expression. The acceptance of diverse body images and authentic self-presentation has expanded significantly over recent years, influencing how people view cosmetic procedures across various domains, including orthodontics. Adult orthodontics is now seen through a lens of empowerment rather than mere correction-a choice reflective of one's commitment to personal well-being and happiness.


In essence, the influence of celebrity endorsements combined with strategic media representation has significantly contributed to normalizing adult orthodontic treatments within society's fabric. It signifies not just an alteration in how we perceive dental aesthetics but reflects deeper shifts in our collective understanding of adulthood itself: an ongoing journey marked by growth, self-improvement-and yes, even taking steps toward straighter teeth at any age.


As we continue to witness this trend unfold, it's clear that we're moving towards a future where seeking orthodontic care is embraced universally as part of comprehensive healthcare-regardless of age-and where every step toward personal enhancement is met with encouragement rather than judgment. This cultural evolution carries profound implications for promoting inclusivity and self-acceptance across all

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Tooth
A chimpanzee displaying his teeth
Details
Identifiers
Latin dens
MeSH D014070
FMA 12516
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]

A tooth (pl.: teeth) is a hard, calcified structure found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates and used to break down food. Some animals, particularly carnivores and omnivores, also use teeth to help with capturing or wounding prey, tearing food, for defensive purposes, to intimidate other animals often including their own, or to carry prey or their young. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of multiple tissues of varying density and hardness that originate from the outermost embryonic germ layer, the ectoderm.

The general structure of teeth is similar across the vertebrates, although there is considerable variation in their form and position. The teeth of mammals have deep roots, and this pattern is also found in some fish, and in crocodilians. In most teleost fish, however, the teeth are attached to the outer surface of the bone, while in lizards they are attached to the inner surface of the jaw by one side. In cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, the teeth are attached by tough ligaments to the hoops of cartilage that form the jaw.[1]

Monophyodonts are animals that develop only one set of teeth, while diphyodonts grow an early set of deciduous teeth and a later set of permanent or "adult" teeth. Polyphyodonts grow many sets of teeth. For example, sharks, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Most extant mammals including humans are diphyodonts, but there are exceptions including elephants, kangaroos, and manatees, all of which are polyphyodonts.

Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, which helps maintain relatively constant length. The industry of the beaver is due in part to this qualification. Some rodents, such as voles and guinea pigs (but not mice), as well as lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas), have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[2][3] Also, tusks (in tusked mammals) grow almost throughout life.[4]

Teeth are not always attached to the jaw, as they are in mammals. In many reptiles and fish, teeth are attached to the palate or to the floor of the mouth, forming additional rows inside those on the jaws proper. Some teleosts even have teeth in the pharynx. While not true teeth in the usual sense, the dermal denticles of sharks are almost identical in structure and are likely to have the same evolutionary origin. Indeed, teeth appear to have first evolved in sharks, and are not found in the more primitive jawless fish – while lampreys do have tooth-like structures on the tongue, these are in fact, composed of keratin, not of dentine or enamel, and bear no relationship to true teeth.[1] Though "modern" teeth-like structures with dentine and enamel have been found in late conodonts, they are now supposed to have evolved independently of later vertebrates' teeth.[5][6]

Living amphibians typically have small teeth, or none at all, since they commonly feed only on soft foods. In reptiles, teeth are generally simple and conical in shape, although there is some variation between species, most notably the venom-injecting fangs of snakes. The pattern of incisors, canines, premolars and molars is found only in mammals, and to varying extents, in their evolutionary ancestors. The numbers of these types of teeth vary greatly between species; zoologists use a standardised dental formula to describe the precise pattern in any given group.[1]

Etymology

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The word tooth comes from Proto-Germanic *tanþs, derived from the Proto-Indo-European *h₁dent-, which was composed of the root *h₁ed- 'to eat' plus the active participle suffix *-nt, therefore literally meaning 'that which eats'.[7]

The irregular plural form teeth is the result of Germanic umlaut whereby vowels immediately preceding a high vocalic in the following syllable were raised. As the nominative plural ending of the Proto-Germanic consonant stems (to which *tanþs belonged) was *-iz, the root vowel in the plural form *tanþiz (changed by this point to *tÄ…Ì„þi via unrelated phonological processes) was raised to /œÃƒâ€¹Ã‚/, and later unrounded to /eː/, resulting in the tōþ/tÄ“þ alternation attested from Old English. Cf. also Old English bōc/bÄ“Ä‹ 'book/books' and 'mÅ«s/mȳs' 'mouse/mice', from Proto-Germanic *bōks/bōkiz and *mÅ«s/mÅ«siz respectively.

Cognate with Latin dÄ“ns, Greek á½€δούς (odous), and Sanskrit dát.

Origin

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Teeth are assumed to have evolved either from ectoderm denticles (scales, much like those on the skin of sharks) that folded and integrated into the mouth (called the "outside–in" theory), or from endoderm pharyngeal teeth (primarily formed in the pharynx of jawless vertebrates) (the "inside–out" theory). In addition, there is another theory stating that neural crest gene regulatory network, and neural crest-derived ectomesenchyme are the key to generate teeth (with any epithelium, either ectoderm or endoderm).[4][8]

The genes governing tooth development in mammals are homologous to those involved in the development of fish scales.[9] Study of a tooth plate of a fossil of the extinct fish Romundina stellina showed that the teeth and scales were made of the same tissues, also found in mammal teeth, lending support to the theory that teeth evolved as a modification of scales.[10]

Mammals

[edit]

Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing and grinding. Carnivores, on the other hand, have canine teeth to kill prey and to tear meat.

Mammals, in general, are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby", "milk", "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful. Kangaroos, elephants, and manatees are unusual among mammals because they are polyphyodonts.

Aardvark

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In aardvarks, teeth lack enamel and have many pulp tubules, hence the name of the order Tubulidentata.[11]

Canines

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In dogs, the teeth are less likely than humans to form dental cavities because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[12] Sometimes called cuspids, these teeth are shaped like points (cusps) and are used for tearing and grasping food.[13]

Cetaceans

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Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human teeth, the protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. While the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface, whales have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at the tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[14]

The toothed whale is a parvorder of the cetaceans characterized by having teeth. The teeth differ considerably among the species. They may be numerous, with some dolphins bearing over 100 teeth in their jaws. On the other hand, the narwhals have a giant unicorn-like tusk, which is a tooth containing millions of sensory pathways and used for sensing during feeding, navigation, and mating. It is the most neurologically complex tooth known. Beaked whales are almost toothless, with only bizarre teeth found in males. These teeth may be used for feeding but also for demonstrating aggression and showmanship.

Primates

[edit]

In humans (and most other primates), there are usually 20 primary (also "baby" or "milk") teeth, and later up to 32 permanent teeth. Four of these 32 may be third molars or wisdom teeth, although these are not present in all adults, and may be removed surgically later in life.[15]

Among primary teeth, 10 of them are usually found in the maxilla (i.e. upper jaw) and the other 10 in the mandible (i.e. lower jaw). Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla and the other 16 in the mandible. Most of the teeth have uniquely distinguishing features.

Horse

[edit]

An adult horse has between 36 and 44 teeth. The enamel and dentin layers of horse teeth are intertwined.[16] All horses have 12 premolars, 12 molars, and 12 incisors.[17] Generally, all male equines also have four canine teeth (called tushes) between the molars and incisors. However, few female horses (less than 28%) have canines, and those that do usually have only one or two, which many times are only partially erupted.[18] A few horses have one to four wolf teeth, which are vestigial premolars, with most of those having only one or two. They are equally common in male and female horses and much more likely to be on the upper jaw. If present these can cause problems as they can interfere with the horse's bit contact. Therefore, wolf teeth are commonly removed.[17]

Horse teeth can be used to estimate the animal's age. Between birth and five years, age can be closely estimated by observing the eruption pattern on milk teeth and then permanent teeth. By age five, all permanent teeth have usually erupted. The horse is then said to have a "full" mouth. After the age of five, age can only be conjectured by studying the wear patterns on the incisors, shape, the angle at which the incisors meet, and other factors. The wear of teeth may also be affected by diet, natural abnormalities, and cribbing. Two horses of the same age may have different wear patterns.

A horse's incisors, premolars, and molars, once fully developed, continue to erupt as the grinding surface is worn down through chewing. A young adult horse will have teeth, which are 110–130 mm (4.5–5 inches) long, with the majority of the crown remaining below the gumline in the dental socket. The rest of the tooth will slowly emerge from the jaw, erupting about 3 mm (18 in) each year, as the horse ages. When the animal reaches old age, the crowns of the teeth are very short and the teeth are often lost altogether. Very old horses, if lacking molars, may need to have their fodder ground up and soaked in water to create a soft mush for them to eat in order to obtain adequate nutrition.

Proboscideans

[edit]
Section through the ivory tusk of a mammoth

Elephants' tusks are specialized incisors for digging food up and fighting. Some elephant teeth are similar to those in manatees, and elephants are believed to have undergone an aquatic phase in their evolution.

At birth, elephants have a total of 28 molar plate-like grinding teeth not including the tusks. These are organized into four sets of seven successively larger teeth which the elephant will slowly wear through during its lifetime of chewing rough plant material. Only four teeth are used for chewing at a given time, and as each tooth wears out, another tooth moves forward to take its place in a process similar to a conveyor belt. The last and largest of these teeth usually becomes exposed when the animal is around 40 years of age, and will often last for an additional 20 years. When the last of these teeth has fallen out, regardless of the elephant's age, the animal will no longer be able to chew food and will die of starvation.[19][20]

Rabbit

[edit]

Rabbits and other lagomorphs usually shed their deciduous teeth before (or very shortly after) their birth, and are usually born with their permanent teeth.[21] The teeth of rabbits complement their diet, which consists of a wide range of vegetation. Since many of the foods are abrasive enough to cause attrition, rabbit teeth grow continuously throughout life.[22] Rabbits have a total of six incisors, three upper premolars, three upper molars, two lower premolars, and two lower molars on each side. There are no canines. Dental formula is 2.0.3.31.0.2.3 = 28. Three to four millimeters of the tooth is worn away by incisors every week, whereas the cheek teeth require a month to wear away the same amount.[23]

The incisors and cheek teeth of rabbits are called aradicular hypsodont teeth. This is sometimes referred to as an elodent dentition. These teeth grow or erupt continuously. The growth or eruption is held in balance by dental abrasion from chewing a diet high in fiber.

Buccal view of top incisor from Rattus rattus. Top incisor outlined in yellow. Molars circled in blue.
Buccal view of the lower incisor from the right dentary of a Rattus rattus
Lingual view of the lower incisor from the right dentary of a Rattus rattus
Midsagittal view of top incisor from Rattus rattus. Top incisor outlined in yellow. Molars circled in blue.

Rodents

[edit]

Rodents have upper and lower hypselodont incisors that can continuously grow enamel throughout its life without having properly formed roots.[24] These teeth are also known as aradicular teeth, and unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel, they must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[25] Enamel and dentin are produced by the enamel organ, and growth is dependent on the presence of stem cells, cellular amplification, and cellular maturation structures in the odontogenic region.[26] Rodent incisors are used for cutting wood, biting through the skin of fruit, or for defense. This allows for the rate of wear and tooth growth to be at equilibrium.[24] The microstructure of rodent incisor enamel has shown to be useful in studying the phylogeny and systematics of rodents because of its independent evolution from the other dental traits. The enamel on rodent incisors are composed of two layers: the inner portio interna (PI) with Hunter-Schreger bands (HSB) and an outer portio externa (PE) with radial enamel (RE).[27] It usually involves the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species, such as guinea pigs.[28][29]

Lingual view of top incisor from Rattus rattus. Top incisor outlined in yellow. Molars circled in blue.

The teeth have enamel on the outside and exposed dentin on the inside, so they self-sharpen during gnawing. On the other hand, continually growing molars are found in some rodent species, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig.[28][29] There is variation in the dentition of the rodents, but generally, rodents lack canines and premolars, and have a space between their incisors and molars, called the diastema region.

Manatee

[edit]

Manatees are polyphyodont with mandibular molars developing separately from the jaw and are encased in a bony shell separated by soft tissue.[30][31]

Walrus

[edit]

Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[32]

Fish

[edit]
Teeth of a great white shark

Fish, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. The replacement of multiple teeth is known as polyphyodontia.

A class of prehistoric shark are called cladodonts for their strange forked teeth.

Unlike the continuous shedding of functional teeth seen in modern sharks,[33][34] the majority of stem chondrichthyan lineages retained all tooth generations developed throughout the life of the animal.[35] This replacement mechanism is exemplified by the tooth whorl-based dentitions of acanthodians,[36] which include the oldest known toothed vertebrate, Qianodus duplicis[37].

Amphibians

[edit]

All amphibians have pedicellate teeth, which are modified to be flexible due to connective tissue and uncalcified dentine that separates the crown from the base of the tooth.[38]

Most amphibians exhibit teeth that have a slight attachment to the jaw or acrodont teeth. Acrodont teeth exhibit limited connection to the dentary and have little enervation.[39] This is ideal for organisms who mostly use their teeth for grasping, but not for crushing and allows for rapid regeneration of teeth at a low energy cost. Teeth are usually lost in the course of feeding if the prey is struggling. Additionally, amphibians that undergo a metamorphosis develop bicuspid shaped teeth.[40]

Reptiles

[edit]

The teeth of reptiles are replaced constantly throughout their lives. Crocodilian juveniles replace teeth with larger ones at a rate as high as one new tooth per socket every month. Once mature, tooth replacement rates can slow to two years and even longer. Overall, crocodilians may use 3,000 teeth from birth to death. New teeth are created within old teeth.[41]

Birds

[edit]

A skull of Ichthyornis discovered in 2014 suggests that the beak of birds may have evolved from teeth to allow chicks to escape their shells earlier, and thus avoid predators and also to penetrate protective covers such as hard earth to access underlying food.[42][43]

Invertebrates

[edit]
The European medicinal leech has three jaws with numerous sharp teeth which function like little saws for incising a host.

True teeth are unique to vertebrates,[44] although many invertebrates have analogous structures often referred to as teeth. The organisms with the simplest genome bearing such tooth-like structures are perhaps the parasitic worms of the family Ancylostomatidae.[45] For example, the hookworm Necator americanus has two dorsal and two ventral cutting plates or teeth around the anterior margin of the buccal capsule. It also has a pair of subdorsal and a pair of subventral teeth located close to the rear.[46]

Historically, the European medicinal leech, another invertebrate parasite, has been used in medicine to remove blood from patients.[47] They have three jaws (tripartite) that resemble saws in both appearance and function, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting anticoagulants (hirudin) and anaesthetics, they suck out blood, consuming up to ten times their body weight in a single meal.[48]

In some species of Bryozoa, the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armoured prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions then move the food through the stomach for digestion.[49]

The limpet rasps algae from rocks using teeth with the strongest known tensile strength of any biological material.

Molluscs have a structure called a radula, which bears a ribbon of chitinous teeth. However, these teeth are histologically and developmentally different from vertebrate teeth and are unlikely to be homologous. For example, vertebrate teeth develop from a neural crest mesenchyme-derived dental papilla, and the neural crest is specific to vertebrates, as are tissues such as enamel.[44]

The radula is used by molluscs for feeding and is sometimes compared rather inaccurately to a tongue. It is a minutely toothed, chitinous ribbon, typically used for scraping or cutting food before the food enters the oesophagus. The radula is unique to molluscs, and is found in every class of mollusc apart from bivalves.

Within the gastropods, the radula is used in feeding by both herbivorous and carnivorous snails and slugs. The arrangement of teeth (also known as denticles) on the radula ribbon varies considerably from one group to another as shown in the diagram on the left.

Predatory marine snails such as the Naticidae use the radula plus an acidic secretion to bore through the shell of other molluscs. Other predatory marine snails, such as the Conidae, use a specialized radula tooth as a poisoned harpoon. Predatory pulmonate land slugs, such as the ghost slug, use elongated razor-sharp teeth on the radula to seize and devour earthworms. Predatory cephalopods, such as squid, use the radula for cutting prey.

In most of the more ancient lineages of gastropods, the radula is used to graze by scraping diatoms and other microscopic algae off rock surfaces and other substrates. Limpets scrape algae from rocks using radula equipped with exceptionally hard rasping teeth.[50] These teeth have the strongest known tensile strength of any biological material, outperforming spider silk.[50] The mineral protein of the limpet teeth can withstand a tensile stress of 4.9 GPa, compared to 4 GPa of spider silk and 0.5 GPa of human teeth.[51]

 

Fossilization and taphonomy

[edit]

Because teeth are very resistant, often preserved when bones are not,[52] and reflect the diet of the host organism, they are very valuable to archaeologists and palaeontologists.[53] Early fish such as the thelodonts had scales composed of dentine and an enamel-like compound, suggesting that the origin of teeth was from scales which were retained in the mouth. Fish as early as the late Cambrian had dentine in their exoskeletons, which may have functioned in defense or for sensing their environments.[54] Dentine can be as hard as the rest of teeth and is composed of collagen fibres, reinforced with hydroxyapatite.[54]

Though teeth are very resistant, they also can be brittle and highly susceptible to cracking.[55] However, cracking of the tooth can be used as a diagnostic tool for predicting bite force. Additionally, enamel fractures can also give valuable insight into the diet and behaviour of archaeological and fossil samples.

Decalcification removes the enamel from teeth and leaves only the organic interior intact, which comprises dentine and cementine.[56] Enamel is quickly decalcified in acids,[57] perhaps by dissolution by plant acids or via diagenetic solutions, or in the stomachs of vertebrate predators.[56] Enamel can be lost by abrasion or spalling,[56] and is lost before dentine or bone are destroyed by the fossilisation process.[57] In such a case, the 'skeleton' of the teeth would consist of the dentine, with a hollow pulp cavity.[56] The organic part of dentine, conversely, is destroyed by alkalis.[57]

See also

[edit]
  • Animal tooth development
  • Dragon's teeth (mythology)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 300–310. ISBN 978-0-03-910284-5.
  2. ^ Tummers M, Thesleff I (March 2003). "Root or crown: a developmental choice orchestrated by the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species". Development. 130 (6): 1049–57. doi:10.1242/dev.00332. PMID 12571097.
  3. ^ Hunt AM (1959). "A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs". J. Dent. Res. 38 (2): 216–31. doi:10.1177/00220345590380020301. PMID 13641521. S2CID 45097018.
  4. ^ a b Nasoori, Alireza (2020). "Tusks, the extra-oral teeth". Archives of Oral Biology. 117: 104835. doi:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2020.104835. PMID 32668361. S2CID 220585014.
  5. ^ McCOLLUM, MELANIE; SHARPE, PAUL T. (July 2001). "Evolution and development of teeth". Journal of Anatomy. 199 (1–2): 153–159. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910153.x. PMC 1594990. PMID 11523817.
  6. ^ Kaplan, Matt (October 16, 2013). "Fossil scans reveal origins of teeth". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.13964 – via www.nature.com.
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  9. ^ Sharpe, P. T. (2001). "Fish scale development: Hair today, teeth and scales yesterday?". Current Biology. 11 (18): R751 – R752. Bibcode:2001CBio...11.R751S. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00438-9. PMID 11566120. S2CID 18868124.
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  21. ^ "Dental Anatomy & Care for Rabbits and Rodents".
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  23. ^ Ryšavy, Robin. Hay & Dental Health, hosted by the Missouri House Rabbit Society-Kansas City. Page accessed January 2, 2024.
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  25. ^ Caceci, Thomas. Veterinary Histology with subtitle "Digestive System: Oral Cavity" found here Archived 2006-04-30 at the Wayback Machine.
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  29. ^ a b AM Hunt. A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs. J Dent Res. (1959) 38(2):216-31.
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  31. ^ Best, Robin (1984). Macdonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 292–298. ISBN 0-87196-871-1.
  32. ^ The Permanent Canine Teeth, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed February 5, 2007.
  33. ^ Underwood, Charlie; Johanson, Zerina; Smith, Moya Meredith (November 2016). "Cutting blade dentitions in squaliform sharks form by modification of inherited alternate tooth ordering patterns". Royal Society Open Science. 3 (11): 160385. Bibcode:2016RSOS....360385U. doi:10.1098/rsos.160385. ISSN 2054-5703. PMC 5180115. PMID 28018617. S2CID 12821592.
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  35. ^ Rücklin, Martin; King, Benedict; Cunningham, John A.; Johanson, Zerina; Marone, Federica; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2021-05-06). "Acanthodian dental development and the origin of gnathostome dentitions". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 5 (7): 919–926. Bibcode:2021NatEE...5..919R. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01458-4. hdl:1983/27f9a13a-1441-410e-b9a7-116b42cd40f7. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 33958756. S2CID 233985000.
  36. ^ Burrow, Carole (2021). Acanthodii, Stem Chondrichthyes. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil. ISBN 978-3-89937-271-7. OCLC 1335983356.
  37. ^ Andreev, Plamen S.; Sansom, Ivan J.; Li, Qiang; Zhao, Wenjin; Wang, Jianhua; Wang, Chun-Chieh; Peng, Lijian; Jia, Liantao; Qiao, Tuo; Zhu, Min (September 2022). "The oldest gnathostome teeth". Nature. 609 (7929): 964–968. Bibcode:2022Natur.609..964A. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05166-2. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 36171375. S2CID 252569771.
  38. ^ Pough, Harvey. Vertebrate Life. 9th Ed. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc., 2013. 211-252. Print.
  39. ^ Kardong, Kenneth (1995). Vertebrate: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. New York: McGraw-HIll. pp. 215–225. ISBN 9780078023026.
  40. ^ Xiong, Jianli (2014). "Comparison of vomerine tooth rows in juvenile and adult Hynobius guabangshanensis". Vertebrate Zoology. 64: 215–220.
  41. ^ Poole, D. F. G. (January 1961). "Notes on Tooth Replacement in the Nile Crocodile Crocodilus niloticus". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 136 (1): 131–140. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1961.tb06083.x.
  42. ^ Hersher, Rebecca (May 2, 2018). "How Did Birds Lose Their Teeth And Get Their Beaks? Study Offers Clues". NPR.
  43. ^ Field, Daniel J.; Hanson, Michael; Burnham, David; Wilson, Laura E.; Super, Kristopher; Ehret, Dana; Ebersole, Jun A.; Bhullar, Bhart-Anjan S. (May 31, 2018). "Complete Ichthyornis skull illuminates mosaic assembly of the avian head". Nature Vol 557, pp 96 - 100.
  44. ^ a b Kardong, Kenneth V. (1995). Vertebrates: comparative anatomy, function, evolution. McGraw-Hill. pp. 55, 57. ISBN 978-0-697-21991-6.
  45. ^ "Ancylostoma duodenale". Nematode.net Genome Sequencing Center. Archived from the original on 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  46. ^ Roberts, Larry S., and John Janovy, Jr. Foundations of Parasitology. Seventh ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
  47. ^ Brian Payton (1981). Kenneth Muller; John Nicholls; Gunther Stent (eds.). Neurobiology of the Leech. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. pp. 27–34. ISBN 978-0-87969-146-2.
  48. ^ Wells MD, Manktelow RT, Boyd JB, Bowen V (1993). "The medical leech: an old treatment revisited". Microsurgery. 14 (3): 183–6. doi:10.1002/micr.1920140309. PMID 8479316. S2CID 27891377.
  49. ^ Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Lophoporata". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 829–845. ISBN 978-0-03-025982-1.
  50. ^ a b Asa H. Barber; Dun Lu; Nicola M. Pugno (18 February 2015), "Extreme strength observed in limpet teeth", Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 12 (105): 20141326, doi:10.1098/rsif.2014.1326, PMC 4387522, PMID 25694539
  51. ^ Zachary Davies Boren (18 February 2015). "The strongest materials in the world: Limpet teeth beats record resistance of spider silk". The Independent. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
  52. ^ Taphonomy: A Process Approach. Ronald E. Martin. Illustrated edition. Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-521-59833-0
  53. ^ Towle, Ian; Irish, Joel D.; De Groote, Isabelle (2017). "Behavioral inferences from the high levels of dental chipping in Homo naledi". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 164 (1): 184–192. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23250. PMID 28542710. S2CID 24296825. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
  54. ^ a b Teaford, Mark F and Smith, Moya Meredith, 2007. Development, Function and Evolution of Teeth, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-03372-5, Chapter 5.
  55. ^ Lee, James J.-W.; Constantino, Paul J.; Lucas, Peter W.; Lawn, Brian R. (2011-11-01). "Fracture in teeth—a diagnostic for inferring bite force and tooth function". Biological Reviews. 86 (4): 959–974. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185x.2011.00181.x. ISSN 1469-185X. PMID 21507194. S2CID 205599560.
  56. ^ a b c d Fisher, Daniel C (1981). "Taphonomic Interpretation of Enamel-Less Teeth in the Shotgun Local Fauna (Paleocene, Wyoming)". Museum of Paleontology Contributions, the University of Michigan. 25 (13): 259–275. hdl:2027.42/48503.
  57. ^ a b c Fernandez-Jalvo, Y.; Sanchez-Chillon, B.; Andrews, P.; Fernandez-Lopez, S.; Alcala Martinez, L. (2002). "Morphological taphonomic transformations of fossil bones in continental environments, and repercussions on their chemical composition" (PDF). Archaeometry. 44 (3): 353–361. doi:10.1111/1475-4754.t01-1-00068.

Sources

[edit]
  • Shoshani, Jeheskel (2002). "Tubulidentata". In Robertson, Sarah (ed.). Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Vol. 18: Svedberg, Theodor to Two-hybrid and Related Systems. London, UK: Nature Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-56159-274-6.
[edit]
  • Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). "Teeth" . The New Student's Reference Work . Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co.

 

 

International children in traditional clothing at Liberty Weekend

A child (pl.children) is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty,[1][2] or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.[3] The term may also refer to an unborn human being.[4][5] In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, in this case as a person younger than the local age of majority (there are exceptions like, for example, the consume and purchase of alcoholic beverage even after said age of majority[6]), regardless of their physical, mental and sexual development as biological adults.[1][7][8] Children generally have fewer rights and responsibilities than adults. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions.

Child may also describe a relationship with a parent (such as sons and daughters of any age)[9] or, metaphorically, an authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."[10]

[edit]
Children playing ball games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD

In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty,[1][2] or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.[3] Legally, the term child may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines child as, "A human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier."[11] This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term child may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In Singapore, for example, a child is legally defined as someone under the age of 14 under the "Children and Young Persons Act" whereas the age of majority is 21.[12][13] In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21.[14]

Some English definitions of the word child include the fetus (sometimes termed the unborn).[15] In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage, which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty.

Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult or child custody, whether their parents divorce or not.

Developmental stages of childhood

[edit]

Early childhood

[edit]
Children playing the violin in a group recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011
Children in Madagascar, 2011
Child playing piano, 1984

Early childhood follows the infancy stage and begins with toddlerhood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently.[16][17] While toddlerhood ends around age 3 when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the age of 5 or 6. However, according to the National Association for the Education of Young Children, early childhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then will lead to the child's autonomy. Also during this stage, a strong emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start preschool and kindergarten at this age: and hence their social lives.

Middle childhood

[edit]

Middle childhood begins at around age 7, and ends at around age 9 or 10.[18] Together, early and middle childhood are called formative years. In this middle period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality. During middle childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children.[19] Upon the entrance of school, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: autism, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and ADHD.[20]: 303–309  Special education, least restrictive environment, response to intervention and individualized education plans are all specialized plans to help children with disabilities.[20]: 310–311 

Middle childhood is the time when children begin to understand responsibility and are beginning to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come at this time, as do social comparison and social play.[20]: 338  During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation.[21]

Late childhood

[edit]

Preadolescence is a stage of human development following early childhood and preceding adolescence. Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as menarche, spermarche, and the peak of height velocity occurring. These changes usually occur between ages 11 and 14. It may also be defined as the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty.[22] Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties. Preadolescent children have a different view of the world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much less emotional being now.'[23] Preadolescents may well view human relationships differently (e.g. they may notice the flawed, human side of authority figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of self-identity, and to have increased feelings of independence: 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of the family."'[24]

Developmental stages post-childhood

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Adolescence

[edit]
An adolescent girl, photographed by Paolo Monti

Adolescence is usually determined to be between the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: mostly corresponding to the teenage years (13–19). However, puberty usually begins before the teenage years (10—11 for girls and 11—12 for boys). Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty,[1][2] adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies. The onset of adolescence brings about various physical, psychological and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and even within a single nation-state or culture there may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks.

History

[edit]
Playing Children, by Song dynasty Chinese artist Su Hanchen, c. 1150 AD.

During the European Renaissance, artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not have much effect on the social attitude toward children, however.[25]

The French historian Philippe Ariès argued that during the 1600s, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe,[26] however other historians like Nicholas Orme have challenged this view and argued that childhood has been seen as a separate stage since at least the medieval period.[27] Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher John Locke was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the tabula rasa, which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. During the early period of capitalism, the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the Protestant countries of the Dutch Republic and England, brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. Puritanism stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children.[28]

The Age of Innocence c. 1785/8. Reynolds emphasized the natural grace of children in his paintings.

The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th-century Enlightenment and the Romantic period that followed it.[29][30] Jean Jacques Rousseau formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel Emile: or, On Education. Building on the ideas of John Locke and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.[29] Sir Joshua Reynolds' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting The Age of Innocence emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of the posing child and soon became a public favourite.[31]

Brazilian princesses Leopoldina (left) and Isabel (center) with an unidentified friend, c. 1860.

The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a complex mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".[30] This Romantic conception of childhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has a longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of childhood circulating, for example, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet Henry Vaughan (e.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity.[32]

Armenian scouts in 1918

With the onset of industrialisation in England in 1760, the divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent. By the late 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps,[33] often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay.[34] As the century wore on, the contradiction between the conditions on the ground for poor children and the middle-class notion of childhood as a time of simplicity and innocence led to the first campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children.

British reformers attacked child labor from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by Charles Dickens.[35] The campaign eventually led to the Factory Acts, which mitigated the exploitation of children at the workplace[33][36]

Modern concepts of childhood

[edit]
Children play in a fountain in a summer evening, Davis, California.
An old man and his granddaughter in Turkey.
Nepalese children playing with cats.
Harari girls in Ethiopia.

The modern attitude to children emerged by the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family and the sanctity of the child – an attitude that has remained dominant in Western societies ever since.[37] The genre of children's literature took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to the child's imagination. Lewis Carroll's fantasy Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first "English masterpiece written for children", its publication opened the "First Golden Age" of children's literature.

The latter half of the 19th century saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe, which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools.[38][39]

The market economy of the 19th century enabled the concept of childhood as a time of fun, happiness, and imagination. Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played by the boys.[40] The Boy Scouts was founded by Sir Robert Baden-Powell in 1908,[41][42] which provided young boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities.[43]

In the 20th century, Philippe Ariès, a French historian specializing in medieval history, suggested that childhood was not a natural phenomenon, but a creation of society in his 1960 book Centuries of Childhood. In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records, finding that before the 17th century, children were represented as mini-adults.

In 1966, the American philosopher George Boas published the book The Cult of Childhood. Since then, historians have increasingly researched childhood in past times.[44]

In 2006, Hugh Cunningham published the book Invention of Childhood, looking at British childhood from the year 1000, the Middle Ages, to what he refers to as the Post War Period of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.[45]

Childhood evolves and changes as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. In the modern era, many adults believe that children should not have any worries or work, as life should be happy and trouble-free. Childhood is seen as a mixture of simplicity, innocence, happiness, fun, imagination, and wonder. It is thought of as a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a world without much adult interference.[29][30]

A "loss of innocence" is a common concept, and is often seen as an integral part of coming of age. It is usually thought of as an experience or period in a child's life that widens their awareness of evil, pain or the world around them. This theme is demonstrated in the novels To Kill a Mockingbird and Lord of the Flies. The fictional character Peter Pan was the embodiment of a childhood that never ends.[46][47]

Healthy childhoods

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Role of parents

[edit]

Children's health

[edit]

Children's health includes the physical, mental and social well-being of children. Maintaining children's health implies offering them healthy foods, insuring they get enough sleep and exercise, and protecting their safety.[48] Children in certain parts of the world often suffer from malnutrition, which is often associated with other conditions, such diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria.[49]

Child protection

[edit]

Child protection, according to UNICEF, refers to "preventing and responding to violence, exploitation and abuse against children – including commercial sexual exploitation, trafficking, child labour and harmful traditional practices, such as female genital mutilation/cutting and child marriage".[50] The Convention on the Rights of the Child protects the fundamental rights of children.

Play

[edit]
Dancing at Mother of Peace AIDs orphanage, Zimbabwe

Play is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children.[51] It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination. Playing and interacting with other children, as well as some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, conflicts and resolutions. However, adults tend to (often mistakenly) assume that virtually all children's social activities can be understood as "play" and, furthermore, that children's play activities do not involve much skill or effort.[52][53][54][55]

It is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or adult caregivers.[51] Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. However, when play is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them. This is especially true in developing creativity, leadership, and group skills.[51]

Ralph Hedley, The Tournament, 1898. It depicts poorer boys playing outdoors in a rural part of the Northeast of England.

Play is considered to be very important to optimal child development that it has been recognized by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights as a right of every child.[11] Children who are being raised in a hurried and pressured style may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play.[51]

The initiation of play in a classroom setting allows teachers and students to interact through playfulness associated with a learning experience. Therefore, playfulness aids the interactions between adults and children in a learning environment. “Playful Structure” means to combine informal learning with formal learning to produce an effective learning experience for children at a young age.[56]

Even though play is considered to be the most important to optimal child development, the environment affects their play and therefore their development. Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian. Children from low income families are less likely to have access to books and computers which would enhance their development.[57]

Street culture

[edit]
Children in front of a movie theatre, Toronto, 1920s.

Children's street culture refers to the cumulative culture created by young children and is sometimes referred to as their secret world. It is most common in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It is strongest in urban working class industrial districts where children are traditionally free to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision. It is invented and largely sustained by children themselves with little adult interference.

Young children's street culture usually takes place on quiet backstreets and pavements, and along routes that venture out into local parks, playgrounds, scrub and wasteland, and to local shops. It often imposes imaginative status on certain sections of the urban realm (local buildings, kerbs, street objects, etc.). Children designate specific areas that serve as informal meeting and relaxation places (see: Sobel, 2001). An urban area that looks faceless or neglected to an adult may have deep 'spirit of place' meanings in to children. Since the advent of indoor distractions such as video games, and television, concerns have been expressed about the vitality – or even the survival – of children's street culture.

Geographies of childhood

[edit]

The geographies of childhood involves how (adult) society perceives the idea of childhood, the many ways adult attitudes and behaviors affect children's lives, including the environment which surrounds children and its implications.[58]

The geographies of childhood is similar in some respects to children's geographies which examines the places and spaces in which children live.[59]

Nature deficit disorder

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Nature Deficit Disorder, a term coined by Richard Louv in his 2005 book Last Child in the Woods, refers to the trend in the United States and Canada towards less time for outdoor play,[60][61] resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems.[62]

With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and television, children have more reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring. “The average American child spends 44 hours a week with electronic media”.[63] Research in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of National Park visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children.[64] The media has accelerated the trend for children's nature disconnection by deemphasizing views of nature, as in Disney films.[65]

Age of responsibility

[edit]

The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time,[66] and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at the time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing.[citation needed] Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is also disputed at the international level.[67]

Education

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Children in an outdoor classroom in Bié, Angola
Children seated in a Finnish classroom at the school of Torvinen in Sodankylä, Finland, in the 1920s

Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life.[68] Formal education most often takes place through schooling. A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) recognizes the right of everyone to an education.[69] Education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, but attendance at school may not be, with alternative options such as home-schooling or e-learning being recognized as valid forms of education in certain jurisdictions.

Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are often kept out of school, or attend only for short periods. Data from UNICEF indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than 20% of African children have never attended primary school or have left without completing primary education.[70] According to a UN report, warfare is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools.[71] Other factors that keep children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school.[72][73]

Attitudes toward children

[edit]
Group of breaker boys in Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911. Child labor was widespread until the early 20th century. In the 21st century, child labor rates are highest in Africa.

Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and change over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and the Netherlands less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and West Germany falling in between.[74]

Child marriage

[edit]

In 2013, child marriage rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in India.[75] According to a 2019 UNICEF report on child marriage, 37% of females were married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by South Asia at 30%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle East and North Africa (18%), and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and North America were minimal.[76] Child marriage is more prevalent with girls, but also involves boys. A 2018 study in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.5% of males are married before age 18, with the Central African Republic having the highest average rate at 27.9%.[77]

Fertility and number of children per woman

[edit]

Before contraception became widely available in the 20th century, women had little choice other than abstinence or having often many children. In fact, current population growth concerns have only become possible with drastically reduced child mortality and sustained fertility. In 2017 the global total fertility rate was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman,[78] adding about 80 million people to the world population per year. In order to measure the total number of children, scientists often prefer the completed cohort fertility at age 50 years (CCF50).[78] Although the number of children is also influenced by cultural norms, religion, peer pressure and other social factors, the CCF50 appears to be most heavily dependent on the educational level of women, ranging from 5–8 children in women without education to less than 2 in women with 12 or more years of education.[78]

Issues

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Emergencies and conflicts

[edit]

Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the health, safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. wars and natural disasters. As of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced by armed conflicts and violence around the world.[79] Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offering the sensitive and consistent care that young children need for their healthy development.[79] Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the physical and mental health of children between birth and 8 years old show that where the disaster is natural, the rate of PTSD occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 percent of affected children.[80] However, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict conditions varies from 15 to 50 percent.[81][82]

Child protection

[edit]
 

Child protection (also called child welfare) is the safeguarding of children from violence, exploitation, abuse, abandonment, and neglect.[83][84][85][86] It involves identifying signs of potential harm. This includes responding to allegations or suspicions of abuse, providing support and services to protect children, and holding those who have harmed them accountable.[87]

The primary goal of child protection is to ensure that all children are safe and free from harm or danger.[86][88] Child protection also works to prevent future harm by creating policies and systems that identify and respond to risks before they lead to harm.[89]

In order to achieve these goals, research suggests that child protection services should be provided in a holistic way.[90][91][92] This means taking into account the social, economic, cultural, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the risk of harm for individual children and their families. Collaboration across sectors and disciplines to create a comprehensive system of support and safety for children is required.[93][94]

It is the responsibility of individuals, organizations, and governments to ensure that children are protected from harm and their rights are respected.[95] This includes providing a safe environment for children to grow and develop, protecting them from physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and ensuring they have access to education, healthcare, and resources to fulfill their basic needs.[96]

Child protection systems are a set of services, usually government-run, designed to protect children and young people who are underage and to encourage family stability. UNICEF defines[97] a 'child protection system' as:

"The set of laws, policies, regulations and services needed across all social sectors – especially social welfare, education, health, security and justice – to support prevention and response to protection-related risks. These systems are part of social protection, and extend beyond it. At the level of prevention, their aim includes supporting and strengthening families to reduce social exclusion, and to lower the risk of separation, violence and exploitation. Responsibilities are often spread across government agencies, with services delivered by local authorities, non-State providers, and community groups, making coordination between sectors and levels, including routine referral systems etc.., a necessary component of effective child protection systems."

— United Nations Economic and Social Council (2008), UNICEF Child Protection Strategy, E/ICEF/2008/5/Rev.1, par. 12–13.

Under Article 19 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, a 'child protection system' provides for the protection of children in and out of the home. One of the ways this can be enabled is through the provision of quality education, the fourth of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, in addition to other child protection systems. Some literature argues that child protection begins at conception; even how the conception took place can affect the child's development.[98]

Child abuse and child labor

[edit]

Protection of children from abuse is considered an important contemporary goal. This includes protecting children from exploitation such as child labor, child trafficking and child selling, child sexual abuse, including child prostitution and child pornography, military use of children, and child laundering in illegal adoptions. There exist several international instruments for these purposes, such as:

  • Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
  • Minimum Age Convention, 1973
  • Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography
  • Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse
  • Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict
  • Hague Adoption Convention

Climate change

[edit]
 
A child at a climate demonstration in Juneau, Alaska

Children are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than adults. The World Health Organization estimated that 88% of the existing global burden of disease caused by climate change affects children under five years of age.[99] A Lancet review on health and climate change lists children as the worst-affected category by climate change.[100] Children under 14 are 44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors,[101] and those in urban areas are disproportionately impacted by lower air quality and overcrowding.[102]

Children are physically more vulnerable to climate change in all its forms.[103] Climate change affects the physical health of children and their well-being. Prevailing inequalities, between and within countries, determine how climate change impacts children.[104] Children often have no voice in terms of global responses to climate change.[103]

People living in low-income countries experience a higher burden of disease and are less capable of coping with climate change-related threats.[105] Nearly every child in the world is at risk from climate change and pollution, while almost half are at extreme risk.[106]

Health

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Child mortality

[edit]
World infant mortality rates in 2012.[107]

During the early 17th century in England, about two-thirds of all children died before the age of four.[108] During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[109] This has continued in England, and in the 21st century child mortality rates have fallen across the world. About 12.6 million under-five infants died worldwide in 1990, which declined to 6.6 million in 2012. The infant mortality rate dropped from 90 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990, to 48 in 2012. The highest average infant mortality rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, at 98 deaths per 1,000 live births – over double the world's average.[107]

See also

[edit]
Listen to this article (3 minutes)
 
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This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 24 June 2008 (2008-06-24), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
  • Outline of childhood
  • Child slavery
  • Childlessness
  • Depression in childhood and adolescence
  • One-child policy
  • Religion and children
  • Youth rights
  • Archaeology of childhood

Sources

[edit]
  •  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education​, 118–125, Marope PT, Kaga Y, UNESCO. UNESCO.
  •  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Creating sustainable futures for all; Global education monitoring report, 2016; Gender review​, 20, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.

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Further reading

[edit]
  • Cook, Daniel Thomas. The moral project of childhood: Motherhood, material life, and early children's consumer culture (NYU Press, 2020). online book see also online review
  • Fawcett, Barbara, Brid Featherstone, and Jim Goddard. Contemporary child care policy and practice (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) online
  • Hutchison, Elizabeth D., and Leanne W. Charlesworth. "Securing the welfare of children: Policies past, present, and future." Families in Society 81.6 (2000): 576–585.
  • Fass, Paula S. The end of American childhood: A history of parenting from life on the frontier to the managed child (Princeton University Press, 2016).
  • Fass, Paula S. ed. The Routledge History of Childhood in the Western World (2012) online
  • Klass, Perri. The Best Medicine: How Science and Public Health Gave Children a Future (WW Norton & Company, 2020) online
  • Michail, Samia. "Understanding school responses to students’ challenging behaviour: A review of literature." Improving schools 14.2 (2011): 156–171. online
  • Sorin, Reesa. Changing images of childhood: Reconceptualising early childhood practice (Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne, 2005) online.
  • Sorin, Reesa. "Childhood through the eyes of the child and parent." Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education 14.1 (2007). online
  • Vissing, Yvonne. "History of Children’s Human Rights in the USA." in Children's Human Rights in the USA: Challenges and Opportunities (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023) pp. 181–212.
  • Yuen, Francis K.O. Social work practice with children and families: a family health approach (Routledge, 2014) online.
Preceded by
Toddlerhood
Stages of human development
Childhood
Succeeded by
Preadolescence